Propaganda & Manipulation:
30 May 2009
By Steven JamesToday the word propaganda has a negative connotation, suggesting dishonest tactics, but originally that was not the meaning intended for the term. Propaganda apparently comes from the Latin name of a group of Roman Catholic cardinals, the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide (Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith). This committee called Propaganda for short was established by Pope Gregory XV in 1622 to supervise missionaries. Gradually, propaganda came to mean any effort to spread a belief.
But the concept of propaganda was not born in the 17th century. From ancient times, men have used every available medium to spread ideologies or enhance fame and power. For example, art has served propagandistic ends since the days of the Egyptian pharaohs. These kings designed their pyramids to project an image of power and durability. Similarly, the architecture of the Romans served a political purpose the glorification of the state. The term propaganda took on a generally negative connotation in World War I when governments began playing an active role in shaping the war information spread by the media. During World War II, Adolf Hitler and Joseph Goebbels proved themselves to be master propagandists.
Propaganda techniques are the methods and approaches used to spread ideas that further a cause, political, commercial, religious, or civil. They are used to manipulate the readers or viewers reason and emotions, to persuade you to believe in something or someone, buy an item, or vote a certain way.
What are the most commonly used propaganda techniques
Name calling:
This techniques consists of attaching a negative label to a person or a thing.
People engage in this type of behavior when they are trying to avoid supporting their own opinion with facts.
Rather than explain what they believe in, they prefer to try to tear their opponent down.
Glittering Generalities:
This technique uses important sounding words that have little or no real meaning.
These words are used in general statements that cannot be proved or disproved. Words like good, honest, fair and best are examples of these words.
Transfer:
In this technique, an attempt is made to transfer the prestige of a positive symbol to a person or an idea.
For example, using the American flag as a backdrop for a political event makes the implication that the event is patriotic in the best interest of the USA.
False Analogy:
In this technique, two things that may or may not really be similar are portrayed as being similar.
When examining the comparison, you must ask yourself how similar the items are. In most false analogies,
there is simply not enough evidence available to support the comparison.
Testimonial:
This technique is easy to understand. It is when big name personalities are used to endorse a product.
Whenever you see someone famous endorsing a product, ask yourself how much that person knows about the product,
and what he or she stands to gain by promoting it.
Plain Folks:
This technique uses a folksy approach to convince us to support someone or something.
These ads depict people with ordinary looks doing ordinary activities.
Card Stacking:
This term comes from stacking a deck of cards in your favor. Card stacking is used to slant a message.
Key words or unfavorable statistics may be omitted in an ad or commercial, leading to a series of half truths.
Keep in mind that an advertiser is under no obligation to give the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.
Bandwagon:
The bandwagon approach encourages you to think that because everyone else is doing something, you should do it too, or you'll be left out.
The technique embodies a keeping up with the Joneses philosophy.
Either/or fallacy:
This technique is also called black and white thinking because only two choices are given.
You are either for something or against it, there is no middle ground or shades of gray.
It is used to polarize issues, and negates all attempts to find a common ground.
Faulty Cause and Effect:
This technique suggests that because B follows A, A must cause B.
Remember, just because two events or two sets of data are related does not necessarily mean that one caused the other to happen.
It is important to evaluate data carefully before jumping to a wrong conclusion.
Errors of Faulty Logic
Information is presented that is in direct opposition to other information within the same argument. Accident:
Someone fails to recognize (or conceals the fact) that an argument is based on an exception to the rule.
False Cause:
A temporal order of events is confused with causality or, someone oversimplifies a complex causal network.
Begging the Question:
A person makes a claim then argues for it by advancing grounds whose meaning is simply equivalent to that of the original claim. This is also called circular reasoning.
Evading the Issue:
Someone sidesteps and issue by changing the topic.
Arguing from Ignorance:
Someone argues that a claim is justified simply because its opposite cannot be proven.
Composition and Division:
Composition involves an assertion about a whole that is true of its parts. Division is the opposite, an assertion about all of the parts that is true about the whole.
Errors of Attack
A person is so committed to a position that they explains away absolutely everything others offer in opposition.
Ad Hominem:
A person rejects a claim on the basis of derogatory facts (real or alleged) about the person making the claim.
Appealing to Force:
Someone uses threats to establish the validity of the claim.
Appeal to Authority:
Authority is evoked as the last word on an issue.
Appeal to the People:
Someone attempts to justify a claim on the basis of popularity.
Appeal to Emotion:
An emotion laden sob story is used as proof for a claim.
